2013年1月29日星期二

回憶之窗 ── 金記冰室

上星期日到「紅色咖啡連鎖店」歎咖啡,翻閱上一期﹝2306 期﹞的《明周》才恍然得知筲箕灣的金記冰室經已在去年年底結業,心情若有所失!

我每次幫襯金記都固執地吃「茶餐」── 腿通、﹝雙蛋轉﹞炒蛋、多士、凍檸茶。人家說金記的牛肉通粉做得出色,印象中腿通轉牛通要另加一元,我沒有試過。

對我來說,金記的意義不在於「吃」;它是讓我穿越時光的一扇窗 ── 最初帶我去金記的是我太太,八年前,我倆初相識的時候,她就住在金記附近,在一個天氣好的周日早上,她首次帶我去金記吃早餐,我們坐在門外的位子,我點了一客「茶餐」,她點了一客「甲餐」……,之後我們不時都去幫襯,多數都在周末或周日的早上,等位的人很多,不容易找到位子;偶爾亦會去喫下午茶。直至五年前她搬離了該區,我倆從此很少再去。


「放假一天,赫然想起久違了的金記,遂去了一趟,看到的仍舊是那隸書寫成的餐牌,點了一客茶餐…… 」── 2012 年 1 月 11 日,我在 facebook 有這串留言。

想不到,那就是我與太太兩人幫襯金記的最後一次。

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金記擺放餐具的方式,充分表現出實用主義,很有老香港的味道:
﹝攝於 2012 年 1 月 11 日﹞


除了以上兩張照,印象中在金記還拍過一些,可惜找不到,只找到下面這張在對面行人路拍的:
﹝攝於 2011 年 4 月 1 日﹞


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一些關於金記結業的新聞:

2013年1月28日星期一

大坑明渠上游的小溪


電腦顯示這張照片的拍攝日期是 2007 年 5 月 13 日。那天中午我心血來潮想去看看,專程帶備相機,走到停車場後面近左邊的位置,步上了山邊的石階,站在溪邊小徑的彎位,拍下了這張照片,然後獨站了一會,回想兒時的日子,未幾便離開了。

已記不起是哪些年,也許我還是個未夠十歲的小學生,在放暑假的日子,經常與鄰家的小孩,從勵德邨的家跑來這裏玩 ── 這條在虎豹別墅門口停車場後面的小溪。仍記得當時虎豹別墅仍未拆,是個對外開放的樂園,門外有不少賣紀念品的攤販,遊人很多,附近的道路都擠滿旅遊巴在上落客,後面的車不時在響號。

炎炎夏日,溪水又清又涼。天氣好時流水淙淙,我們會帶備羽毛球拍,用來捕捉蜻蜓,見蜻蜓停在石上,便拿球拍輕拍下去夾,然後用手捉住其翅膀,放進以塑膠玩具籃改裝成的籠,將它們帶回家,那些蜻蜓大多是紅色或藍色的,其他顏色的給我們視為珍品;一時興起又帶來雪糕杯,在水中捉魚、蝦、蚪豆、螺及青蛙。我曾在這裏見過成串的青蛙卵,又曾捕獲仍拖著尾巴、只長出了後腳而未有前肢的青蛙,青蛙一生的各個形態我在升中之前都見過了。記得有一次我撈了一些東西回家,養在雪糕杯裡;媽媽見到,驚說那些是「蚊」﹝正確來說是蚊的幼蟲 ── 孑孓﹞,最後我將那些「蚊」倒進金魚缸讓魚吃了。

一班未懂事的小孩子,在石塊之間跳來躍去,有人更曾爬上上游的堤壩、爬落下游路面底下,印象之中下雨天也來過一兩次,長大後回想起來才覺驚險。這小溪其實是大坑明渠的上游,橫過大坑道地底再流落山,沿綄紗街路面下的暗渠,再穿越銅鑼灣道地底,然後流出大坑明渠,再流入高士威道底下的暗渠,經維園地底流出銅鑼灣避風塘。若然洪水湧至,被水沖走,定必九死一生。

過去幾年,跑步經過時見那處被圍起了,展開了渠務工程,有一次還窺見山邊開了一個巨大的洞,原來那處已闢作港島西雨水排放隧道東面的入口。近來經過見工程已完成,看過去只見一列堤壩般的高牆,堵在停車場後面,當時沒有走過去看。究竟那條小溪變成什麼樣?我總有一天要去看一看……。

2013年1月26日星期六

菲林之魅 ── KODAK COLORPLUS 200


拍了一卷 KODAK COLORPLUS 200,放了三個星期有多才拿去沖掃,選了十來張較喜歡的放上來。 首張在去年 12 月 30 日攝於康怡吉之島外;其餘在今年元旦日攝於北角碼頭一帶:








 


 
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KODAK COLORPLUS 200 是現時柯達產品線上價錢最平的菲林,有人說它其實是以前的 KODAK GOLD 200,只是改了名稱及包裝。市面上的確已很少見到 KODAK GOLD 200,幸好給我上個月在旺角星際碰見有得賣,每卷廿五元,二話不說買了兩卷,直到現在仍未拍,待拍出來以後再說;在此先談 COLORPLUS。

若與富士的非專業用菲林 FUJICOLOR SUPERIA 200 作比較,兩者同是 ISO 200,感覺上 KODAK COLORPLUS 的寬容度有所不及,色彩亦是 SUPERIA 較飽和﹝綠色更不在話下﹞,但可以說 COLORPLUS 顏色淡得來比較貼近原色,真實感較強;至於幼滑度,靠肉眼實在難作比較,單以一兩次拍攝經驗亦難下結論,要知除了菲林感光層化學品的顆粒大小之以,沖洗後影像的幼滑度還受很多因素影響。

單憑感覺未免太主觀,曾嘗試在網上搜尋兩種菲林的規格﹝specifications﹞,找到的話便可對兩種菲林作客觀的比較,可惜經過一番努力之後亦只找得到 FUJICOLOR SUPERIA 200 的 data sheet,裏面確有不少具參考價值的數據,卻始終找不到 KODAK COLORPLUS 200 的。

2013年1月24日星期四

H-D 方法

先前談過 D-N 模型﹝deductive-nomological model﹞,今回再論 H-D 方法﹝hypothetico-deductive method,在網上找到的中文翻譯為「假說演繹法」﹞。H-D 方法旨在將發展科學理論的過程程序化,有說這方法早於十九世紀初經已出現。根據 H-D 方法,科學理論是依以下程序發展出來的:
  1. 憑觀測及經驗訂出要解釋的事件;
  2. 嘗試為解釋該事件構想出一個假說﹝hypothesis﹞;
  3. 將假說套用到其他事件,透過演繹邏輯﹝deductive logic﹞得出預測﹝prediction﹞;
  4. 將預測與實情作比較,若預測符合實情,假說便得以驗證﹝verified﹞,並可將其視為可接受的理論;若預測與實情不符,假說便遭否證﹝falsified﹞,那便需對假說作出修正,甚至乎重新構想另一個新的假說,再重複過程的第三及第四步,如是者直至假說得以驗證。
要注意假說一般是不可能透過邏輯構想出來的,正如 Karl Popper 在 The Logic of Scientific Discovery ﹝《科學發現的邏輯》﹞中提到:
[...T]here is no such thing as a logical method of having new ideas, or a logical reconstruction of this process. My view may be expressed by saying that every discovery contains 'an irrational element', or 'a creative intuition'[...] (p.8)
H-D 方法有不少疑難,它既不能讓人分辨某理論是「定律」﹝law﹞還是「全稱推廣」﹝universal generalization﹞,亦導致「 烏鴉悖論」﹝The Raven Paradox﹞;Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy【Laws of Nature】對前者說明得很詳細, William Bechtel 在 Philosophy of Science: An Overview for Congnitive Science 第二章將後者解釋得很清楚:
[...A] law statement of the form

For all x, if x is F, then x is G

is logically equivalent to the statement

For all x, if x is not G, then x is not F.

If F stands for raven and G for black, then the law "All ravens are black" (e.g., for all x, if x is a raven, then it is black) is logically equivalent to "All things that are not black are not ravens" (e.g. For all x, if x is not black, then it is not a raven). To test the first statement, the H-D model would lead us to examine ravens to see if they are black. The more black ravens we encounter, the greater support for the law (as long as we do not encounter raven that are not black). But the form to which it is logically equivalent only requires us to examine things that are not black and test the prediction that these things will not be ravens. Every nonblack object that you see that is not a raven will confirm that putative law. So you can sit in the room you are now in and test the law that all ravens are black by making sure all the nonblack objects in the room are not ravens. Something clearly seems to have gone wrong! (p.26-27)
此外,傳統的 H-D 方法在測試理論方面﹝過程的第四步﹞不夠全面。Karl Popper 在《科學發現的邏輯》第三節提出測試理論可循四個方向進行:
We may if we like distinguish four different lines along which the testing of a theory could be carried out. First there is the logical comparison of the conclusions among themselves, by which the internal consistency of the system is tested. Secondly, there is the investigation of the logical form of the theory, with the object of determining whether it has the character of an empirical or scientific theory, or whether it is, for example, tautological. Thirdly, there is the comparison with other theories, chiefly with the aim of determining whether the theory would constitute a scientific advance should it survive our various tests. And finally, there is the testing of the theory by way of empirical applications of the conclusions which can be derived from it. (p.9)
上述最後一個方向即傳統的 H-D 方法的第四步。

Karl Popper 強調縱然理論得到事實支持,亦只是暫時可信,難保日後可能會被推翻:
It should be noticed that a positive decision can only temporarily support the theory, for subsequent negative decisions may always overthrow it. (p.10)
正如他所言:
[...N]o matter how many instances of white swans we may have observed, this does not justify the conclusion that all swans are white. (p.4)
這便是「黑天鵝問題」﹝The Black Swan Problem﹞。Karl Popper 對「黑天鵝」的關注促使他主張科學家檢測理論應採「否證法」﹝falsification﹞ ── 即 modus tollens ── 以否定理論為目標尋找證據;而非「驗證法」﹝verification﹞ ── 即 modus ponens ── 以肯定理論為目標尋找證據。

其實,可追溯「最先」提出黑天鵝問題的不是 Karl Popper,更不是《黑天鵝》﹝The Black Swan﹞的作者 Nassim Nicholas Taleb﹝他提出的「黑天鵝事件」有別的定義﹞,而是懷疑實證主義者大衛‧休謨﹝David Hume,1711-1776﹞:
In his Treatise on Human Nature, the Scots philosopher David Hume posed the issue in the following way (as rephrased in the now famous black swan problem by John Stuart Mill): No amount of observations of a white swan can allow the inference that all swans are white, but the observation of a single black swan can refute that conclusion. (摘錄自Fooled by Randomness, p.117)
噢!講完烏鴉又講天鵝,難道哲學家都喜歡鳥?


參考資料
  • Wikipedia【Hypothetico-deductive model
  • The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Karl Popper, Routledge Classics 2002, ISBN 978-0-415-27844-7
  • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy【Laws of Nature
  • Philosophy of Science: An Overview for Congitive Science, William Bechtel
  • Fooled by Randomness: The Hidden Role of Chance in Life and in the Markets, Nassim Nicholas Taleb, Penguin Books 2004, ISBN 978-0-141-03274-0
  • The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable, Nassim Nicholas Taleb, Penguin Books 2007, ISBN 978-0-141-03459-1

2013年1月18日星期五

典範轉移

"Paradigm shift"﹝中文譯作「典範轉移」﹞這個詞組經常遭人濫用,尤其在商界,普普通通的一個新概念就揚稱是 paradigm shift,好比職場中的 title inflation ── 連掃地阿姐都變了做 "public hygiene specialist"。

"Paradigm shift" 這個詞組其實源自一本書 ── The Structure of Scientific Revolutions ﹝《科學革命的結構》﹞,作者是 Thomas Kuhn ,他原本是物理學家,後來醉心研究科學史,從中有所領悟,並於 1962 年寫成該書,提出甚具哲學意義、且顛覆性的見解。

現在在書店買得到的英文版多是五十周年紀念版,比起之前的第三版,該版加了 Ian Hacking 所著的引言。只因我喜歡原汁原味,不含雜質,為買 1996 年出版的第三版逛了多間書店,幸好在銅鑼灣的誠品找到一本。

據 Thomas Kuhn 所言,科學發展不是知識的持續累積,而是一個接一個的典範﹝paradigm﹞,從一個典範過渡至另一個典範的過程謂之「典範轉移」﹝paradigm shift﹞,促成典範轉移的是「危機」﹝crisis﹞以及隨之而來的「科學革命」﹝scientific revolution﹞。

典範是「常態科學」﹝normal science﹞發展的歷程,在一個典範之中,科學家普遍認為某些認知是真理,他們以這些認知為基礎進一步以「解答疑問」﹝puzzle-solving﹞的形式探索大自然及解釋自然現象,知識持續累積,科學得以平穩發展。在潛移默化中,他們做實驗的方法及所用的儀器、量度的標準,以至解釋實驗結果的理論都是基於這些認知制定出來,而課本及學校所教授的亦是這些認知,沒有人會懷疑這些認知的真確性;縱然某些發現與這些認知有抵觸,世人亦只會抱懷疑態度來看待這些發現,甚至將其視為「異象」﹝anomalies﹞。

當越來越多「異象」出現令越來越多科學家懷疑他們原有的認知,典範便陷入「危機」;可是部分科學家仍對他們的認知充滿信心,並認定遲早可以以現有的認知,藉「常態科學」的發展找出解釋「異象」的方案。

有科學家成功以新的認知解釋「異象」,新的認知獲得越來越多科學家的注意及認同,掀起一場「科學革命」,而隨著時光流逝,仍堅持舊認知的「死硬派」相繼逝世,舊的認知遭摒棄、遺忘、改寫,典範轉移完成。在新的典範之中,科學家普遍認為新的認知才是真理,在新的認知之下,他們對舊的觀測結果、概念、定義甚至是科學詞彙都有了新的理解,課本亦遭改寫。新一代的科學家毫不懷疑地認為這些認知是真理,並以此為基礎進一步探索大自然,新的知識又在「常態科學」的步伐下持續累積,科學再次得以平穩發展 …… ,直至另一個典範轉移發生。

在書中,Thomas Kuhn 多次以 Gestalt Switch 來解釋 paradigm shift;但又教人注意兩者其實不盡相同,例如:
[...A] process that involves "handling the same bundle of data as before, but placing them in a new system of relations with one another by giving them a different framework." Others who have noted this aspect of scientific advance have emphasized its similarity to a change in visual gestalt: the marks on paper that were first seen as a bird are now seen as an antelope, or vice versa. That parallel can be misleading. Scientists do not see something as something else; instead, they simply see it. [...T]he scientist does not preserve the gestalt subject's freedom to switch back and forth between ways of seeing. Nevertheless, the switch of gestalt, particularly because it is today so familiar, is a useful elementary prototype for what occurs in full-scale paradigm shift. (p.85)
The subject of a gestalt demonstration knows that his perception has shifted because he can make it shift back and forth repeatedly while he holds the same book or piece of paper in his hands. Aware that nothing in his environment has changed, he directs his attention increasingly not to the figure (duck or rabbit) but to the lines on the paper he is looking at. Ultimately he may even learn to see those lines without seeing either of the figures, and he may then say[...]that it is these lines that he really sees but that he sees them alternately as a duck and as a rabbit. [...]Unless there were an external standard with respect to which a switch of vision could be demonstrated, no conclusion about alternate perceptual possibilities could be drawn. [//]With scientific observation, however, the situation is exactly reversed. The scientist can have no recourse above or beyond what he sees with his eyes and instruments. If there were some higher authority by recourse to which his vision might be shown to have shifted, then that authority would itself become a source of problems[...]. The same sorts of problems would arise if the scientist could switch back and forth like the subject of the gestalt experiments. [...]In the sciences, therefore, if perceptual switches accompany paradigm changes, we may not expect scientists to attest to these changes directly. [...]Rather we must look for indirect and behavioral evidence that the scientist with a new paradigm sees differently from the way he had seen before. (p.114-115)
全書連一幅插圖也沒有,為了解 Gestalt switch,在亙聯網用搜尋器搜了一番,雖然找不到以鳥及羚羊﹝bird and antelope﹞為題材的錯覺畫,但就找到「鴨與兔」﹝如下﹞,看過必能體驗 Gestalt switch。有說「鴨與兔」是心理學家 Joseph Jastrow 於 1888 年提出的:
﹝轉載及改遍自《維基百科》【Rabbit-duck illusion】﹞

Thomas Kuhn 的學說有以下的深層次含意,亦是備受爭議之處:

整體論﹝holism﹞
不同的典範有不同的架構,就連表面上客觀的觀測結果都會在不同的理論及觀念之下而有不同的理解﹝theory-laden data﹞,典範之間根本不存在共通的語言,故不可能共融﹝incommensurate﹞,新典範的出現宣告舊典範的覆亡。

相對主義﹝relativism﹞
在不同的典範之中,科學家對「真理」有不同的理解。至於那個「真理」才是真理?我們卻無從得知。絕對的真理並不存在;真理是相對的。

科學的非理性﹝irrationality﹞
世上不存在選擇典範的規則系統,轉移與否以及轉移至哪一個典範取決於科學界對不同典範「解答疑問」﹝puzzle-solving﹞的潛力的評估。此外,由於絕對的真理不存在,探索真理亦難說得上是科學發展的目標,科學的發展正如達爾文在《進化論》提出的生物進化過程,生物隨自然環境的轉變而進化,科學則在不同的典範中向不同的「真理」邁進,沒有永恆的目標。


參考資料
  • The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Third Edition, Thomas S. Kuhn, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN-10: 0-226-45808-3
  • Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction, Samir Okasha, Oxford, ISBN: 978-0-19-280283-5

2013年1月11日星期五

埋首於書堆中的駝鳥 ── 2013 篇

  • 《蔡瀾四談日本》蔡瀾﹝重閱﹞ The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd edition), Thomas S. Kuhn
  • Harvard Business Review on Corporate Strategy, Harvard Business School Press
    • Creating Corporate Advantage, David J. Collis and Cynthia A. Montgomery
    • Competing on Resources: Strategy in the 1990s, David J. Collis and Cynthia A. Montgomery
    • Desperately Seeking Synergy, Michael Goold and Andrew Campbell
    • The End of Corporate Imperialism, C.K. Prahalad and Kenneth Lieberthal
    • Beyond Greening: Strategies for a Substainable World, Stuart L. Hart
    • Why Focused Strategies May Be Wrong for Emerging Markets, Tarun Khanna and Krishna Palepu
    • Competing on Capabilities: The New Rules of Corporate Strategy, George Stalk, Philip Evens and Lawrence E. Shulman
    • Corporate Strategy: The Quest for Parenting Advantage, Andrew Campbell, Michael Goold and Marcus Alexander
  • The Road To Serfdom, F.A. Hayek
  • Clouds in a Glass of Beer: Simple Experiments in Atmospheric Physics, Craig F. Bohren
  • What Light Through Yonder Window Breaks?: More Experiments in Atmospheric Physics, Craig F. Bohren
  • The Art of Thinking Clearly, Rolf Dobelli
  • Wholeness and the Implicate Order, David Bohm
  • The Signal and the Noise, Nate Silver
  • Sway: The Irresistible Pull of Irrational Behaviour, Ori Brafman and Rom Brafman
  • Physics of the Impossible: A Scientific Exploration into the World of Phasers, Force Fields, Teleportation, and Time Travel, Michio Kaku

2013年1月10日星期四

D-N 模型

Karl Popper 曾提及他認為存在同樣適用於描述自然科學與社會科學發展的統一方法。索羅斯﹝George Soros﹞不同意,他認為人的感知會影響事態,並破壞 "deductive-nomological model" 之中預測與解釋的對稱性,繼而否定統一方法的存在。

似乎索羅斯是拋錯書包。事實上,從《歷史定論主義的窮困》﹝The Poverty of Historicism﹞第 29 節﹝121 頁﹞可知 Karl Popper 所指的統一方法並非 "deductive-nomological model" ,而是 "hypothetical-deductive method":
[...]The methods always consist in offering deductive causal explanations, and in testing them (by way of predictions). This has sometimes been called the hypothetical-deductive method, or more often the method of hypothesis[...]
在此先談 "deductive-nomological model",日後有時間再論 "hypothetical-deductive method"。

"Deductive-nomological model" 簡稱 "D-N model", 亦稱為 "covering law model",中文有的譯作「演繹‧法則模型」。為簡便,以下將其稱為 D-N 模型。

D-N 模型旨在將解釋事件的科學方法邏輯化,根據 D-N 模型,解釋某事件便是以已知的事實作為「前題」﹝premises﹞,並透過演繹邏輯﹝deductive logic﹞推理出事件,而那些前題便是事件的解釋。D-N 模型要求所有前題均能夠被實証﹝empirically testable﹞,且必須真確,而當中至少一項是定律﹝law﹞。例如要解釋「釘子會生鏽」──
前題一:釘子是用鐵造的﹝事實 C﹞
前題二:鐵會生鏽﹝定律 L﹞
結論:釘子會生鏽﹝事件 E﹞
D-N 模型還有以下特點:

  1. 解釋與預測是對稱的 ── 若事件還未發生﹝或未知﹞,得到的結論便是個「預測」,箇中引用的前題在事後便可用來解釋事件,故能預測便等於能解釋,反之亦然;
  2. 漠視因果關係 ── 沒要求定律描述的是從因到果的過程。
另一方面,D-N 模型亦存在兩大疑難,分別是「不對稱疑難」﹝the problem of asymmetry﹞及「不相關疑難」﹝the problem of irrelevance﹞。某程度上這兩大疑難的出現皆因 D-N 模型漠視了因果關係。

「不對稱疑難」
試考慮一支垂直的旗杆,若知道旗杆高度﹝前題一﹞及太陽仰角﹝前題二﹞便可根據光行直線﹝前題三﹞及三角幾何﹝前題四﹞預測旗杆影子的長度﹝事件﹞,前題一、二是已知的事實,前題三、四是已知的定律;事件既可根據這些前題透過演繹邏輯預測出來,這些前題亦可視為對事件的解釋。倘若將影子長度視為前題一,而前題二、三、四不變,那麼預測出的事件便是旗杆高度;但是,將影子長度﹝加上其他前題﹞說成是對旗杆高度的解釋就怎樣都說不通!那旗杆有多高是人為既定的嘛!

「不相關疑難」
根據「吃了避孕藥的人不會懷孕」﹝前題一﹞、「強仔是人」﹝前題二﹞及「強仔吃了避孕藥」﹝前題三﹞,透過演繹法便可預測強仔不會懷孕;強仔固然不會懷孕,但這些前題其實與強仔不會懷孕沒有關係,亦不是強仔不會懷孕的正確解釋。強仔是男人才是他不會懷孕的真正原因嘛!

大部份文獻稱 D-N 模型是 Carl Hempel 與 Paul Oppenheim 提出的,有人更將 D-N 模型稱為 Hempel-Oppenheim 模型,原因是 Hempel 與 Oppenheim 於 1948 年發表過一篇題為 "Studies in the Logic of Explanation" 的文章,對上述解釋事件的科學方法作出了詳細分析,以下摘錄自該文章的引言:
To explain the phenomena in the world of our experience, to answer the question "why?" rather than only the question "what?", is one of the foremost objectives of all rational inquiry; and especially, scientific research in its various branches strives to go beyond a mere description of its subject matter by providing an explanation of the phenomena it investigates. While there is rather general agreement about this chief objective of science, there exists considerable difference of opinion as to the function and the essential characteristics of scientific explanation. In the present essay, an attempt will be made to shed some light on these issues by means of an elementary survey of the basic pattern of scientific explanation and a subsequent more rigorous analysis of the concept of law and of the logical structure of explanatory arguments.
事實上,Karl Popper 早在 1934 年已提出過類似 D-N 模型的構思,下文摘錄自《科學發現的邏輯》﹝The Logic of Scientific Discovery﹞第 12 節:
To give a causal explanation of an event means to deduce a statement which describes it, using as premises of the deduction one or more universal laws, together with certain singular statements, the initial conditions. […]We have thus two different kinds of statement, both of which are necessary ingredients of a complete causal explanation. They are (1) universal statement, i.e. hypotheses of the character of natural laws, and (2) singular statements, which apply to the specific event in question and which I shall call 'initial conditions'. It is from universal statements in conjunction with initial conditions that we deduce the singular statement. [...]We call this statement a specific or singular prediction.
注意 Popper 提的是 "causal explanation" 以及前題中的事實是 "initial conditions",顯示 Popper 著重因果關係對解釋事件的重要性。

Hempel 與 Oppenheim 在他們的文章中亦提過 "causal explanation";但他們提及的 "causal" 卻不是「前因後果」, 而是 "non-statistical",那只是說明 D-N 模型中的事件是決定性的﹝deterministic﹞:
The type of explanation which has been considered here so far is often referred to as causal explanation. If E describes a particular event, then the antecedent circumstances described in the sentences C1, C2, …, Ck may be said jointly to "cause" that event, in the sense that there are certain empirical regularities, expressed by the laws L1, L2, …, Lr, which imply that whenever conditions of the kind indicated by C1, C2, …, Ck occur, an event of the kind described in E will take place. Statements such as L1, L2,…, Lr, which assert general and unexceptional connections between specified characteristics of events, are customarily called causal, or deterministic, laws. They are to be distinguished from the so-called statistical laws which assert that in the long run, an explicitly stated percentage of all cases satisfying a given set of conditions are accompanied by an event of a certain specified kind.
邏輯實證主義﹝logical positivism﹞以邏輯及實證為本,而因果關係是無法證實的,D-N 模型對因果關係的漠視,充分反映 Hempel 與 Oppenheim 信奉的是大衛‧休謨﹝David Hume﹞式的懷疑實證主義﹝skeptical empiricism﹞──「病態般」的多疑。以下摘錄自 Samir Okasha 的 Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction:
For Hempel subscribed to a philosophical doctrine known as empiricism, and empiricists are traditionally very suspicious of the concept of causality. Empiricism says that all our knowledge comes from experience. David Hume[…]was a leading empiricist, and he argued that it is impossible to experience causal relations. So he concluded that they don't exist – causality is a figment of our imagination! […]Most empiricists have not accepted this startling conclusion outright. But as a result of Hume's work, they have tended to regard causality as a concept to be treated with great caution. So to an empiricist, the idea of analysing the concept of explanation in terms of the concept of causality would seem perverse. If one's goal is to clarify the concept of scientific explanation, as Hempel's was, there is little point in using notions that are equally in need of clarification themselves. And for empiricists, causality is definitely in need of philosophical clarification. So the fact that the covering law model makes no mention of causality was not a mere oversight on Hempel's part.

參考資料
  • The Poverty of Historicism, Karl Popper, Routledge Classics 2002, ISBN 0-415-27846-5
  • The Alchemy of Finance: Reading the Mind of the Market, George Soros, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-04206-4
  • The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Karl Popper, Routledge Classics 2002, ISBN 978-0-415-27844-7
  • Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction, Samir Okasha, Oxford, ISBN: 978-0-19-280283-5
  • Studies in the Logic of Explanation, Philosopy of Science 15 (1948): 135-175, Hempel, Carl G. & Oppenheim, Paul

2013年1月4日星期五

菲林之魅 ── 「樂凱」SHD 100

同事介紹,稱樂凱黑白菲林又平又正,以往每卷價錢不用十元人民幣。早前在深水埗買了一卷,要廿八元。之後見灣仔的電腦商場內有店舖售廿二元一卷,便一次過買了三卷。樂凱﹝LUCKY﹞是中國名牌,其生產的 ISO 100 黑白菲林廣為愛好攝影的人士樂用,豈料我買了的平價貨不是樂凱 SHD 100,而是「樂凱」SHD 100。

在樂凱之外加括號,是因為我懷疑自己買了假貨。貪平,買的時候沒察覺,雖然當時意識到紙盒上的印刷與較早前買的不符﹝較早前買的沒有那隻吉祥物﹞,但眼見印刷精美,盒底又有機印的到期日 ── 2014 12,便不為意。

開了盒才發現裝著菲林的膠筒製作相當粗劣,內裏的菲林筒既殘舊又多塵,菲林的片頭又滿佈花痕,已知不妙;細看之後竟發現菲林筒上的招紙是貼上去的,而且本應是 ISO 100 的菲林,菲林筒上的 DX code 居然表示 ISO 200,撕開那張貼紙驚見那菲林筒原本是彩韻 200 的。心知那是循環再用的菲林筒,當時想:難道買了分裝片?

不買也買了,趁放假到中環隨拍了一卷,沖出來見整條菲林上下兩邊齒孔之外什麼條碼與數字都沒有。我傾向相信:那根本不是正貨的分裝片,而是假貨。

幸好始終是一條可供拍攝的黑白菲林,縱使我仍不知那條菲林的感光度是否真的是 ISO 100,但黑白菲林的寬容度大,縱然是 200 當了 100 來拍,或是 100 當了 200 來沖,亦不至於達到災難程度吧!










﹝攝於 2012 年 12 月 27 日﹞

2013年1月3日星期四

菲林之魅 ── FUJICOLOR NATURA 1600


網上流傳 FUJICOLOR NATURA 1600 很幼滑,發色亦較富士的另一產品 FUJICOLOR SUPERIA 1600 自然。以往亦聽很多人說過日本的產業會將品質最好的產品留在日本銷售,而將過時或次等的產品外銷。的而且確,在日本的 FUJIFILM 網站,ISO 1600 的菲林就只有 NATURA 1600;而在 香港的 FUJIFILM 網站,SUPERIA 1600 是產品欄中唯一的 ISO 1600 菲林。

但假如你認真一點,分別到日本及香港的 FUJIFILM 網站下蛓 NATURA 1600SUPERIA 1600 的「資料單張」﹝data sheet﹞,細心比對一下兩種產品的數據及圖表,你便會傾向相信它們是沒有分別的,兩者均採用納米結構 SIGMA 顆粒﹝nano-structured SIGMA grain﹞技術,有第四感色層,擴散均方根粒度同樣是 7、降像力、特性曲線、分光感度曲線、MTF曲線,以及色素的分光濃度曲線都別無二致:
 ── SUPERIA 1600 可能就是富士將 NATURA 1600 「重新包裝」﹝repackage﹞以供外銷的「同品」。

在本港,NATURA 1600 普遍比 SUPERIA 1600 賣得貴,除了賣方可能要專程從日本進貨﹝而非透過本地的認可經銷商﹞以致成本較高之外,一些玩家想嘗試新東西而願付高價成了買方,有供有求。玩家試過了之後,縱然是基本因素相同的東西,或許是心理上覺得價錢貴、包裝美的「日本版」好一點,之後更流傳開去。

有平的 SUPERIA 1600 不買而買貴的 NATURA 1600,莫非犯賤?

只是當初還不知,特意趁聖誕買了一卷 NATURA 1600 來拍夜景 ──「資訊不完全流通而非經濟學供求定律之錯」的又一例子。

「犯一次賤先來試試 NATURA 1600,遲些再體驗 SUPERIA 1600,來驗証一下那個『同品』假說,亦無不可吧!」── 好一個 Franklin's Gambit!

※          ※          ※

相中天上的霓虹招牌的倒影是怎樣來的?相信是鏡頭前的 UV 濾鏡反射所致,夜拍還是拆去濾鏡比較好:

燈光之下的表現,沒有出現嚴重偏色:

以下兩張是對寬容度的考驗:

有說感光度高反差低,然而這卷 ISO 1600 反差仍高,顏色鮮艷:

裝上六星濾鏡,但沒有拆除長裝在鏡頭前的 UV 濾鏡,做成了一些眩光,意料之外的美:

左上方一例反射光源形成的六角星,每道星光的中間都有一條黑線,將星光一分為二,原因為何?實在令人費解:

﹝攝於 2012 年 12 月 27 日﹞